Hitler’s foreign policy successes between 1936 and 1939 Essay

â€Å"Hitler’s foreign policy successes between 1936 and 1939 rested on his remarkable tactical skills and ability to exploit his opponent’s weaknesses?† Discuss this view. Many of Hitler’s foreign policy aims had been recorded since the publication of â€Å"Mein Kampf†, but none of his plans had any time scale to them. His only concept of time appeared to be that he wanted war by 1942, in fear of an arms race with the likes of Britain and France, resulting in Germany no longer holding the upper hand – also, he was under the impression that he would face his own death close to this time. It appears that, despite his aims having been set in stone for many years, Hitler was quite an opportunist, grabbing at fortunate circumstances rather than planning. Very little tactical skill or exploitation appeared to go into any of his actions (with minor exceptions); he just appeared to assume that most things would work out to his expectations regardless. Luckily for Hitler, this often appeared to be this case – but rarely via the means which he intended. A long running aim of Hitler’s was to overturn the Treaty of Versailles, of which the first step was made towards by the reoccupation and militarisation of the Rhineland. The Rhineland was France’s greatest barrier between itself and the German threat, and so it would be fair to assume that they would be far more than just keen to retain its demilitarised state. However, when France signed the Franco-Soviet pact, Hitler deemed that it had broken the Locarno treaty, and so used this as reasoning to reoccupy the Rhineland. The reoccupation in itself was a huge gamble – the German army was still notably weak at this point, and any opposition from France would result in them having to withdraw immediately. Nonetheless, Hitler disregarded the opinion of his generals (all of whom were opposed to the move), and ordered German forces into the Rhineland on 7th March, 1936, to be met by no opposition whatsoever. There was a small amount of protest from Britain and France, but as Hitler had presumed, they were unwilling to take any real action against him. France was war weary; Britain was suffering economically and concerned with the defence of their empire in the east. Hitler had further reason for believing this move would be a successful one. Little action had been taken by the League of Nations at Manchuria in 1931, and they were unlikely to taken any at this point either; also, Germany now benefited from friendly relations with Italy, following Hitler’s support for the invasion of Abyssinia. Appeasement on Britain’s part had also played a roll in convincing Hitler his actions were achievable. The 1935 Anglo-German naval agreement had effectively broken the Stresa front, showing him that he could successfully push boundaries. Although all these moves came down to being a series of fortunate circumstances (except good relations with Italy – something Hitler had long strived for), a small amount of skill went into this move. Hitler aimed to isolate France (namely by deny it of its allies) to make many of his aims simpler, and started to do so by achieving the German-Polish non aggression pact. This broke the little entente, and began to drive a wedge into Europe. This aside however, the reoccupation of the Rhineland was a minimally planned gamble, and by no means a show of neither skill nor exploitation. On 5th November 1937, a secret meeting took place at the Reichstag chancellery in Berlin, the minutes of which would come to be known as the Hossbach Memorandum. It was here that Hitler outlined his more drastic future foreign policy aims (including plans for expansion into Eastern Europe), and the strategies by which he would achieve them. It stated his desire to annex Austria and to crush Czechoslovakia, and the need for war within the next six years, to avoid an arms race with two â€Å"hate inspired antagonists† – Britain and France. His strategy for moving into east Europe was via a series of small wars to benefit the German economy – which, in it’s strive for autarky, was overheating and struggling. It was a radical move at the time – Hitler’s previous actions had been hidden under a veil of nationalism, and were never outwardly â€Å"Nazi†. However, there was no real plan. There may well have been a strategy – that being, the series of small wars – but no real time scale or method. It would appear that Hitler, as with the reoccupation of the Rhineland, was intending to grab at opportunities as they arose, rather than tactically planning his actions. Hitler’s next territorial move was to achieve the annexation of Austria. This had already been once attempted in 1934, but failed and left bad relations with Italy, and Hitler had denied all involvement. Regardless, the second attempt of Anschluss was barely planned, and its success was owed greatly to the improvisations offered by Herman Goering. Due to the disruption being caused by Austrian Nazis, Chancellor Schuschnigg requested a meeting with Hitler. Seizing the opportunity before him, Hitler took the chance to bully Schuschnigg, who emerged from the meeting with more Nazis being allowed into to parliament, the freedom of Nazi prisoners and Seyss-Inquart as interior minister – quite the opposite to what he had intended to achieve. It would seem that Hitler, rather than exploiting a weakness, had instead created one in his opponent. At this point, it appeared to Hitler that Germany may well be able to hold dominance over Austria without even the need for an official annexation. However, to his anger, Schuschnigg called for a referendum upon his return to Austria, in which he asked the people to â€Å"affirm their support for Austrian impendence†. Allowing this referendum to take place could have spelt bad news for the possibility of Anschluss – a negative result on Hitler’s part would make it far more difficult to achieve the union. As the referendum was so unexpected, there was no plan from this point onwards. Hitler began to exert pressure through right-wing Austrian parliament members, demanding that the referendum be cancelled and that Seyss-Inquart replace Schuschnigg as Chancellor. From here on however, Herman Goering became the â€Å"man of the hour†. He threatened President Miklas with German invasion unless Schuschnigg was allowed to resign (which, under pressure, he did), and also dictated a telegram from Seyss-Inquart, inviting the German army to enter Austria to â€Å"preserve law and order†. Consequently, German troops entered Austria on 12th March 1938. Evidently, little skill was played by Hitler here – had it not been for Goering’s intervention, Hitler and his lack of plan may have been faced with another failed Anschluss. Hitler merely assumed no action would be taken against him by the western allies, for much the same reasons with the Rhineland, and it would be fair to assume that he had expected Schuschnigg to simply give in to his demands. In this situation, Goering was the one displaying tactical skill, and not Hitler. Following the fortunate success of Anschluss, Hitler was encouraged to push forwards to Czechoslovakia. His first aim was the predominately German speaking Sudetenland, which he hoped to seize by means of a small war. He was to be faced by Neville Chamberlain and his policy of appeasement however, with whom he met on 15th September 1938, at Berteschgaden. Here, Hitler demanded the swift takeover of the Sudetenland, with threat of military action. No visible plan from Hitler here – it appears that he hoped to gain what he desired by threats and pressure. Following discussions between Britain and France, it was agreed that areas of over 50% German population within the Sudetenland would be handed over to Hitler, without so much as the formality of a plebiscite. Seeing that he had the upper hand, and knowing that Britain and France were reluctant to go to war (particularly over Czechoslovakia), Hitler rejected this agreement at his second meeting with Chamberlain on 22nd September 1938, on the grounds that it â€Å"would take too long to implement†. Instead, he demanded that the German army be able to occupy the Sudetenland within 2 days (claiming that the Czechs were slaughtering Sudeten Germans), and that the Czechs met the territorial demands of Poland and Hungary. Benes rejected these demands, and rebelled against Anglo-French pressure, ordering military mobilisation. On 26th September, Hitler gave the Czechs 24 hours to agree to hand over the Sudetenland before 1st October. The situation at this point looked as though war was on the horizon. Although this was what Hitler had wanted, he had only wanted a local war with Czechoslovakia – not a continental one. Still set on avoiding war, Chamberlain asked Mussolini to arrange another meeting with Hitler. The meeting was held at Munich, between Hitler, Daladier, Chamberlain and Mussolini, where it was agreed that Germany military occupation of the Sudetenland would be phased over 1st-10th October. The Czechs were told to accept these agreements or fight alone. It would seem Hitler had a lot of thanks to give to Chamberlain and his policy of appeasement. Had he not been faced with this, Hitler would have sent German forces into the Sudetenland with minimal planning or direction. France had military ties with Czechoslovakia, as did Russia (which came into effect only if the French honoured their commitments); although the likelihood of France taking any action was unlikely, it was not impossible, and Hitler may well have been faced countless other forms of opposition. Besides, Chamberlain had handed him exactly what he desired on a silver platter anyway – and in turn, left open a gateway to the rest of a somewhat defenceless Czechoslovakia. Although this was a great foreign policy success for Hitler, there was practically no means for him to exert neither tactical skill nor exploitation anyway. As ever, he gained exactly what he had set out for; just through unexpected means. Despite a weak agreement made at Munich to respect the territorial integrity of what was left of Czechoslovakia, Hitler made military plans for an attack on its remains within days of the agreement. He encouraged Poland, Hungary and Romania to demand territory from Czechoslovakia, and the Slovaks to demand autonomy. In February 1939, Hitler met with the Slovak leader Bela Tuka, telling him to demand complete separation from Czechoslovakia. President Hacha responded by declaring martial war to try to prevent the break-up, but Hitler retaliated with demands that Slovakia declare it’s independence, or it would be taken over by Hungary. The Slovak government complied and, in desperation, Hacha visited Hitler seeking help to retain the remnants of a broken Czechoslovakia. Wasting no opportunity, Hitler demanded for Czechoslovakia be split; a number of hours later, Hacha gave into the demands. On 15th March, German troops marched on Prague, and Bohemia-Moravia became a German protectorate. The following day, Slovakia asked for German protection, leading to it becoming a satellite state. Although a situation which was somewhat handed to him as a result of the Munich agreement, some degree of tactical skill was evidently used in bringing down the rest of Czechoslovakia. As a country of various nationalities, Hitler could see an opportunity to create a great divide amongst them, and used this to his advantage. Knowing Hacha wanted to preserve what of Czechoslovakia he could, Hitler exploited him by offering him only the options of German attack or to hand over Bohemia-Moravia. In addition to this, Slovakia was left in such a state of disruption anyway that it became under heavily German influence. For once, Hitler had used his own skill to gain territory, and did so without a single shot being fired and barely any opposition. Poland was next on Hitler’s territorial hit list, but it was unlikely to come as easily as his previous gains. Following the fall of Prague, there had been a change in mood from the west towards Hitler – he could no longer be trusted. No longer would his desires be handed to him; tactical skill was needed if Poland were to be successfully claimed. Ribbentrop had already attempted to negotiate a deal with the Poles by offering them guarantees of their borders and the possibility of gains in the Soviet Ukraine if they were to give up Danzig; however, fearful of Soviet response, the Polish government did not want to become involved in such a deal with Germany. In January 1939, Hitler met with Beck, the Polish foreign minister, where he added a demand for a German road/rail link across the Polish Corridor. To Hitler’s surprise, the Poles refused the demand, as they were unwilling to become a German satellite state – British and French guarantees of support had made the Poles less inclined give in to German pressure at the expense of their independence. Around spring of 1939 however, it was becoming clear to Hitler that defensive action against Poland needed to be taken. Diplomatic bridges were formed with Bulgaria, Hungary and Yugoslavia, whilst non-aggression pacts were signed with Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia. This was Hitler’s means of preparing for war with Poland, which was extended by the surprising Nazi-Soviet pact, of 23rd August 1939, forged by Ribbentrop. As ideological enemies, it was an unlikely move, but one that Hitler saw advantage to. Both countries had lost lands to Poland following WW1, and uniting would provide a huge threat to Poland on both fronts, and, in Hitler’s eyes, it isolated Poland from her allies (as he assumed Britain and France would not commit to their guarantees). The pact itself agreed that for the next 10 years, they would remain neutral if the other attacked a third party, and also contained a secret protocol, providing for the partition of Poland and creating Nazi and Soviet spheres of influence in eastern Europe. To Hitler, this had all been a great success – not only was he in a great for the invasion of Poland, but also for the invasion of Russia later on. German troops entered Poland on 1st September 1939, and to Hitler’s dismay, Britain and France declared war on 3rd September. The road leading up to the invasion of Poland shows that Hitler could put tactical skill and exploitation to good use when required. Forging relations with the Baltic republics and small east European nations left Poland with little to no German opposition surrounding it, but Ribbentrops Nazi-Soviet pact was by far the most effective tactic against Poland. It allowed both a great offensive against Poland, and a pathway to the invasion of Russia in the future. As with the Anschluss of 1938, this was a great success in foreign policy – but not, for the most part, thanks to himself. It is clear to see that Hitler’s foreign policy success rarely laid thanks to his own skill, exploitation or tactful planning, particularly prior to the fall of Prague. Although these feats would unlikely have been achievable without any display of skill, Hitler was very fortunate that the situations around him played well into his hands, such as Britain’s insistence on appeasement concerning the Sudeten crisis. Hitler also owed a lot of thanks to the likes of Ribbentrop and Goering, each who stepped in and allowed some of the successes to happen. The success of Hitler’s foreign policies between 1936 and 1939 did not rest on him at all – they merely benefited from his actions, the aid of those around him, and the situations which created them.

How the Caged Bird Sings by Maya Angelou Essay

In the chapter 15 as we call Sister Flowers from How the Caged Bird Sings by Maya Angelou, allows us the readers to experience the day with Margareute Johnson through her writing style as if we were experiencing it through her eyes and deep inside her thoughts. Her use of imagery, metaphors, similes and narration helps us paint and imagine a vivid picture in our own minds. Just like when Angelou is describing Sister Flowers, â€Å"Her skin was a rich black that would have peeled like a plum if snagged . . .† Her use of a simile comparing a plum helps us imagine the details such as being smooth, soft, and shiny, just as she saw Sister Flower’s dark black skin. Her use of imagery helps us experience things she saw, the smells she smelt, as if we were right there experiencing it with her. â€Å"The sweet scent of vanilla had met us as she opened the door.† As we read this we can in our heads invent in our minds how Sister Flowers house smelled like vanilla, as she was about to step into her house. Angelou gets us thinking that Sister Flowers had probably just got done baking. â€Å"They were flat round wagers, slightly browned on the edges and butter-yellow in the center.† Angelou already gave us her sense of smell, now she is using imagery to describe her sense of sight of the cookies that Sister Flowers just baked especially for Margareute. Now she is getting our mouths watering for some of Sister Flower’s cookies. Angelou with out a doubt had a good writing style using a lot of similes, imagery, metaphors, and narration to improve our ability to acknowledge every little smell, every little detail and that she saw, just pretty much everything that was going through her head as she was living it first hand.

Globalization of hospitality industry Essay

A service is an activity which has some element of intangibility associated with it, which involves some interaction with customer. The service is unique component in hospitality which is a universal component with the distinct requirements even in New York or New Delhi. The advent of globalization has created new destinations and opportunities to explore. The new business opportunities like outsourcing business to new regions will provide ample opportunities to the services. Every destination has its won distinct characteristics to deal with. The acceptance of your service depends upon the way the organisation responds in creating the native environment. The important aspects that a guest perceives in hospitality industry are the Ambience, the quality of service, the features on offer. An organisation to internationalize needs a series of factors to look into The custom made services, Location preference, the entry norms and the modes of entry. The more the people move to exploit the business opportunities world wide the more will be the need for services. The hotels and the others related leisure services are essentials for these businessmen moving far. The MNC’s has to know the regions where there is greater movement of population and where there is need to establish the hotel services in view of the international client. The establishment importantly should keep an eye on the local requirements without hurting the native custom. The organizations have to touch a right balance with international quality services with local touch to magnify the uniqueness of the service offered. The new regions will enhance the business proportions, increase the profitability, ease the competitive pressure on the group. The entry norms leverage the hotels group to enter a new destination with ease. The common entry norms are acquisition, jointventures, leasing, franchising and management contracts. The modes enable to retain the clientele base of the target company, helps in understanding the consumer base quickly. The above strategies decrease the settling time as it is more like taking forward the same brand with a new look. Thus the hotel groups should concentrate more on developing strong local brand with international standard. The more you adopt to the market the more will be the returns. Reference: Li Wei, Integration and globalization of hotel industry, viewed on Jan 26, 2007 available at http://fld. dlut. edu. cn/TeachAndReasch/TR_disp. asp? id=220

Psychology human development Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Psychology human development - Essay Example Identify the theorist (s) associated with cognitive development? The development of cognition in infancy starts when the child becomes aware of his surroundings and begins to explore it. The process of exploration however entails the use of intellect which is a product of adaptation and organization. For the child to adjust to his environment, assimilation and accommodation has to take place. On the other hand, a child is said to have organized his thoughts when he systematically combines structural schemes that are accompanied with ideas and actions. According to the theory of Piaget, the development of the child’s cognition undergoes different stages to include sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete, and period of formal operations. The child’s cognition becomes refined in each stage thus the child has different reasoning ability as he grows older. For instance, at age two months, the child thoughts are symbolic in nature without thinking of the consequences of his ac tions, as he reaches the next stage, he can associate single and simple words with objects until he can be able to use numbers, size and can relate to time and eventually he knows to reason out. 2.

Weirding the War by Stephen Berry Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Weirding the War by Stephen Berry - Essay Example He also addresses other pertinent issues like analyzing whether the civil war played a part in destroying or reinforcing the cult of domesticity in America. Finally, a review of other author’s books is done to see whether they can gladly be explained by Stephen’s ‘weirding’ the war ideology (Berry, 2011). The definition of gender roles provides a description of these roles as being, the different duties assigned to an individual based on their gender. Gender is a socially constructed term used to refer to an individual’s social or legal status. Its ascription is on the basis of the biological dispositions which differentiate men from women. The antebellum attitudes affected the gender roles as seen in the three different articles. A general background appraisal of the attitudes which existed during this era clearly shows the disparities present in the gender roles assigned to different people. These disparities influenced the day-to-day interactions of different people. The formation of attitudes is as a result of influence from different factors such as, political alliances, economic status or race. For example, race influenced people’s attitudes in a tremendous way. ... The formation of political alliances also played a great role in the formation of people’s attitudes. The Southern states possessed different political ideologies from the Northern states which created tension and culminated in the start of the Civil war. One of these ideologies was; the Northern states advocated for the abolishment of the slave trade whereas the Southern states seemed to be profiting from slavery. â€Å"The Tale of the Three Kates† by LeeAnn Whites illustrates the way economic status also influenced the formation of people’s attitudes especially in relation to gender roles. The antebellum society's influence was from the male culture which affected all sectors of society. Meaning, men had the authority to own property, unlike women. Therefore, the roles assigned to men included those that allowed them to acquire property. In addition, the economic status ascribed to women depended on the status ascribed to their fathers or husbands (Berry, 2011) . All the books also attempt to analyze whether the cult of domesticity experienced some effects by the civil war. This begs the question, what did the phrase ‘cult of domesticity mean’ in the first place. It referred to the pre-existing culture of the people living in the antebellum period. It confined women to play a domesticated role which included running the households and nurturing their children. On the other hand, the men worked tirelessly striving to make a living to support their families. It was, therefore, unheard of to find women working with the men in the different industries. However, this soon changed when the war started. It destroyed the cult of domesticity by redefining the roles ascribed to people based on their gender. The women had to fill in the vacant

Conflict Diamonds Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Conflict Diamonds - Essay Example These wars till date have caused a loss of around 3.7 million lives. Now that the war in Sierra Leone and Angola are over, and DRC is also cooling down, the problem of conflict diamonds still exist (Seigel, 133; Conflict Diamonds: Did someone die for that diamond). In 1992, the UN Security Council took steps to solve the problem, but was a failure. In 1993, embargo was imposed on arms trade and diamond exports by the UN Security Council. In 1997, military takeover in Sierra Leone and collapse of Lome’ peace agreement in 2000 showed the same picture. In 2000, an embargo on diamond export from Sierra Nevada was also proposed, but all these did little to solve the crisis situation in these African countries. Causes and Impacts The direct impact of the ‘conflict diamonds’ situation can be seen as the two main problems that need to be discussed here - one is the refugee problem and the other being the child soldiers. The source of this ongoing refugee problem started f rom December 1989 with a rebellion between Liberia and Ivory Coast. It was reported that by March 1990, almost 84,000 Liberians had sought refuge in the neighboring country of Guinea, which was where most fleeing people would seek shelter. When talks of negotiation broke off between the governments of both these countries, a fierce rebellion triggered in Liberia in June 1990, and the refugees were now starting to take shelter in Sierra Leone in large numbers. Most people residing in the common area of border like that of Guinea, Liberia and Sierra Leone started crossing the borders in the form of refugees. These refugees, instead of taking the longer routes, came through the shortest of the ways as crow flies to attend to periodic churches and with alibi of businesses. One major problem was that these refugees, instead of living in the refugee camps started cohabiting in local areas with local people. Land provided to them by the local authorities was used to settle down by construc ting rough unplanned houses as the neighboring areas started becoming overcrowded. Initially, there was co-operation from the host country, but tensions started arising when their numbers started multiplying. Even in some areas, the number of refugees exceeded the number of local people. Tensions started elevating when the rural Liberian refugees could not quite cope up with the urban styles of dressing and mind-set. The tensions were elevated further when there were reduction of already very little resources, mainly due to sloth reaction of the aid agencies. The hosts were never prepared to share their impoverished resources (Magbaily Fyle, 37-47). The second and graver problem arising from the conflict of blood diamond is the increase in the size of child soldiers. According to United Nations (UN), number of child soldiers increased from 200,000 to 300,000 during the period ranging from 1988 to 2002. The increasing use of child soldiers are a slur in the face of the wide claims of various international laws that claim to exert their influence in shielding children from both forceful and voluntary deployment in civil wars throughout Africa. The Liberian war of 1989-1995 shows not the state’s army, but an incredible proportion of children among the rebels. Some conflicts also show a different trend of deploying more child soldiers by the government itself. In Africa, by

Mangmnt 3010 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Mangmnt 3010 - Essay Example The company can maintain itself through the effect of the implementation of this leadership style by hiring new employees. So, if the company engages in mere routine and unskilled jobs, it is easy to hire new employees without ill effects to company management and production. The tactical plan and actions to address Autocratic Leadership has its basic foundation in ensuring that the leadership style suits company goals and the company’s capacity to maintain such leadership style. From this, other plans may arise to ensure employee loyalty. This system of rewards has been proven as a good means to keep employees under control. A system of rewards as defined by a business dictionary as â€Å"procedures, rules, and standards associated with allocation of benefits and compensation to employees† may be put into play. The company can devise steps for the giving of incentives, bonuses, and benefits to those who will continue to work well and obey management. Rewards may also b e given for employees who continue to stay with the company, perhaps a bonus for every three year anniversary. A government agency, NASA, defines employee relations as â€Å"involving the body of work concerned with the maintenance of employer-employee relationships that contribute to satisfactory productivity, motivation, and morale.† This leaves no room for conflict or problems between co-employees and management. Management must ensure and maintain employees happy, creative and enthusiastic. By keeping employees in such a state, they will work better for the interests of the company. It is for this reason that the Florida Atlantic University promotes the creation of a positive environment and relationships based on good management practices and workplace behaviors. There are courses of action to create a positive environment and

Hell angels the Motorcycle riders Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Hell angels the Motorcycle riders - Essay Example It was not long before other chapters throughout California were established and the group gained increasing prominence. During these early years the insignia and many membership elements were established (Winterhalder 2005). Today for an individual to become a member of the Hell’s Angels they must be a white male, have a driver’s license, an American made working motorcycle, and can never have applied to be a police officer or prison guard (Winterhalder 2005). Similar to the mafia there are a highly structured variety of stages an individual must progress through – including hang around, associate, and prospect stages – before becoming a fully-fledged member (Winterhalder 2005). Today there are over one hundred chapters of the Hell’s Angels. Surprisingly these chapters are not limited to the United States, but are spread out over 29 countries globally, with the first international chapter established in New Zealand in 1961 (Winterhalder 2005). While the members of Hell’s Angels contend they make great contributions to society, they have also been involved in a high number of criminal incidents. Perhaps the most seminal incident occurred at the 1969 Altamont Free Concert, a free Rolling Stones concert (Lavigne 2010). The Hell’s Angels were hired as security for the event, but during one incident greatly overstepped their bounds and killed one of the concertgoers. This incident is only the most publicized in a long-history of criminal incidents. In recent years the Hell’s Angels were involved in a shooting in Sparks, Nevada. Jeffrey Pettigrew, president of the San Jose chapter, was shot in the back two times by members of a rival gang (Lavigne 2010). In 2002 another incident occurred in Nevada. Referred to the River Run Riot the Hell’s Angels engaged in physical conflict on the casino floor (Lavigne 2010). This incident

Traditional Hmong Ideas of Health and Life Case Study

Traditional Hmong Ideas of Health and Life - Case Study Example Their Health Belief and Practices According to Fadiman (1997), the Hmong fail to believe in Modern Medicine because of their evident distrust of hospitals, especially when a woman decides to deliver a baby at her residence with the assistance of her husband. The husband cuts the â€Å"umbirical cord† of the baby, yet he lacks satisfactory knowledge expected in that field (Fadiman, 1997). According to Hmong traditions, a woman should avoid ponds and lakes in fear of the spirits that lurk within them. Indeed, her mother in law and husband should guide her during labour. Her husband carries out succeeding births and, when a problem occurs, assistance from the third party is an option. The woman giving birth is expected to be silent irrespective of the pain she is experiencing in order not to scare the baby. Before the pregnancy a â€Å"shaman†, who is a spiritual healer, consults the expectant woman. If she has doubts on her safety at some stage while delivering, the †Å"shaman† will conduct a ritual to cast off all evil spirits the woman presumes harmful to her (Fadiman, 1997). His aides assist him as he enters into a stupor when his soul departs from him to restore the woman’s lost soul. Her freedom from the evil spirits is shown by tying strings on her wrist and a copper bracelet to protect her against bad spirits. If the woman’s child bearing is extremely painful, undertaking certain rituals is imminent; those can include: drinking water with a key in the cup to unlock the birth canal or making attached dolls of paper, then ritually cutting them to take apart the baby’s soul and that of her mother (Fadiman, 1997). Hmong women and men believe that evil spirits are liable for several sicknesses being evident in simple things, such as a fall, stolen or even traded by these spirits. According to Fadiman (2009), Lias’ parents believe that her epileptic condition happened because Lias’ older sister had slamme d the door. This resulted in her soul being frightened to the extent of escaping her body which, in turn, led to epilepsy. Hmong people believe that if the soul abandons the body, a person can become epileptic or even die. A patient’s treatment is reunification with his/her soul through a ceremony conducted by the â€Å"shaman†. The shaman will release the spirit from its world back to the body of the affected. In the case of the person’s spirit being stolen or sold, ceremonies are orchestrated to encourage the evil spirit to return the soul to her body. According to Fadiman (2009), the Lee family carried out similar acts in order to reunite Lias’ soul to her body. The distrust of the Hmong people in Western medicine brought about medical anthro by the Western world of the Hmong people. Additionally, there are beliefs associated with a child’s health concept. Children born with physical disabilities witness the fate of their former lives or that of their parents or ancestors. When there is a recurrence of a certain disease in a family, such as deafness or mental illness, they are to be suffering a curse. They assume a person’s ancestors to have mocked a person undergoing that condition prior to his/her birth. Therefore, a superior spirit forces a similar disease upon them. Hmong people consider children born with elongated head shapes are special. It is their conviction that these children have mystical powers, like anticipating the future, and are

Prevalence of Self-Medication Essay Example for Free

Prevalence of Self-Medication Essay Antibiotic self-medication among university medical undergraduates in Northern Nigeria Joseph O. Fadare 1* and Igbiks Tamuno 2 1Department of Medicine, Kogi State Specialist Hospital, Lokoja, Nigeria 2Department of Pharmacology, Bayero University, Kano, Kano State, Nigeria. Accepted 20 April, 2011 Self-medication is becoming a common type of self-care behavior among the population of many countries. Many international studies have investigated the prevalence and nature of self-medication practices at the population level. In Nigeria, some workers have also looked at the population prevalence of self-medication in general; however the prevalence of antibiotic self-medication among medical undergraduates has not yet been studied. The interest in studying this practice among this select group is due to the fact that they are the future prescribers and health educators of the population of Nigeria. The study was a cross-sectional pre-tested questionnaire-based study carried out among medical students of the Bayero University, Kano, North-West Nigeria during a two-week period in August 2008. The information from the returned questionnaire were coded, entered and analyzed using SPSS Version 12 statistical software. A total of 183 students filled and returned the questionnaire giving a response rate of 83.2%. Out of these respondents, 120 (65.6%) were males and the mean age of respondents was 23.2  ± 2.5 years (Range 17 to 31). 71 (38.8%) of the medical students admitted to the practice and there was no statistically significant difference among the different levels of medical education (p 0.05). Antibiotics from the penicillin group (ampicillin/cloxacillin, amoxicillin and ampicillin) were the most frequently used. Self-medication with antibiotics is prevalent among medical undergraduates in Northern Nigeria. There is a need for an intervention to address this practice. Key words: Antibiotics, self-medication, medical undergraduates, Nigeria. INTRODUCTION Antibiotics are one of the most prescribed drugs worldwide (Tà ¼nger et al., 2000). Self-medication with antibiotics is a common practice in many countries in the world although the trend seems to be more in developing or resource-poor nations (Awad et al., 2005). Some of the reasons that have been found responsible for this trend include lack of access to health care,  availability of antibiotics as over the counter (OTC) drugs and in open markets and poor regulatory practices (Vaananen et al., 2006). Self-medication with antibiotics has been identified as one form of irrational use of medicine contributing to *Corresponding author. E-mail: [emailprotected] Tel: +234- 8138048127. increased healthcare costs, antimicrobial drug resistance and sometimes increased morbidity among the popu- lation (Aswapokee et al., 1990; Okeke et al., 1999). The practice of self-medication in general has been widely studied among populations of many countries in Africa, Asia and Europe (Martins et al., 2002; Yousef et al., 2008; Awad et al., 2007a). One of the factors that have been found to influence this practice is the level of education of the research participants (Afolabi, 2008). Many studies have also previously looked at the pre- valence, nature and reasons for self-medication among university undergraduates (non-medical) in different countries of the world (Zafar et al., 2008; Sawalha, 2008; Lucas et al., 2007). There are also studies on general self-medication practices among medical undergraduates in some other countries (Buke et al., 2005; Chowdhury 218 J. Public Health Epidemiol. et al., 2009). In Nigeria, previous studies have concen- trated on general self-medication practices among the population (Afolabi, 2008) and health care workers (Bamgboye et al., 2006). This study of antibiotic self- medication practice among university medical undergraduates in Nigeria is very important as they are a segment of the population that is highly educated and with access to information regarding their health. Looking at this practice among medical undergraduates is also very vital as they represent the future generation of drug prescribers and health educationists. The understanding of the level of antibiotic self-medication practice and the reasons for it will enable for different interventional strategies. It will also help policy makers to develop approaches for a more rational use of antibiotics in the community in general. The main objective of this study was to determine the frequency and nature of antibiotic self-medication practice among university medical undergraduates in the Northern part of Nigeria. This study also sought if there is any relationship between the level of medical education and the self-medication  practice. METHODS The study was a cross-sectional questionnaire-based study carried out among medical students of the Bayero University, Kano, North- West Nigeria during a two-week period in August 2008. Sampling A total of two hundred and twenty self-administered questionnaires were distributed to students from different level of medical education (200 to 500 Level) using a convenient sampling system. Questionnaire The questionnaire which had been pre-tested among students of another faculty in the university consisted of both open and close ended questions. The questionnaires were administered to the students through their class representatives who also returned the filled ones. The act of filling and returning of the forms was taken as consent of the students to participate and the study was approved by the Hospital Ethics Committee. The lead question was â€Å"Have you practiced self-medication with antibiotics in the last two months?’The duration of two months was chosen because of the belief that recall of medication use is still very reliable within that time frame. Other questions include: The reasons for indulging in self-medication, conditions for which the drugs were taken and the antibiotics that were being used. Statistical analyses The information from the returned questionnaire were coded and entered using SPSS version 12 statistical software. Results were expressed as counts and percentages while Chi-square test was used for to investigate possible associations between sex, level of medical education and antibiotic self-medication practice. A p-value 0.05 was considered as statistically significant for the purpose of this study. RESULTS A total of one 183 students filled and returned the questionnaire giving a response rate of 83.2%. Out of these respondents, one hundred and twenty (65.6%) were males and the mean age of all respondents was 23.2  ± 2.5 years (Range 17 to 31 years). The distribution of the respondents according to level of medical education is shown in Table 1. In response to the question  whether respondents had practiced self- medication in the preceding two months, 71 (38.8%) of the medical students admitted to the practice and there was no statistically significant difference among the different levels of medical education (p 0.05). Though self-medication with antibiotics was more common among the male students, this difference was not statistically significant (p 0.05). The common conditions for which the antibiotics were taken include diarrhea, sore throat, fever, cough and catarrh among others (Table 2). Antibiotics from the penicillin group (ampicillin/cloxacillin, amoxicillin and ampicill in) were the most frequently used for self-medication among the respondents (Table 3). 29 (42.6%) of the medical undergraduates who indulged in the practice did it because they considered their ailment as being mild while 24 (35.3%) were involved in it because of their past experience with the particular antibiotic. Regarding the source of the antibiotics used for self-medication, majority of the respondents (57.4%) patronized patent medicine stores while hospital and community pharmacies were the suppliers for 13 (19.1%) and 11 (16.2%) of the respondents, respectively. Only 1 respondent (1.5%) used the leftover from a previous prescription in this study. Majority of the medical undergraduates (89.6%) knew that the normal duration of treatment was supposed to be at least a minimum of 5 days; however only 34 (49.3%) of the respondents actually completed the course of treatment. This study also found out that gender of the respondents did not influence significantly the practice of antibiotic self-medication (p = 0.07). DISCUSSION Sample population and self-medication The frequency of antibiotic self- medication observed in our study is slightly lower than that reported in similar studies in Africa (Awad and Eltayeb, 2007b) and closer to that found in population-based studies in Jordan and Lithuania (Al-Azzam et al., 2007; Berzanskyte et al., 2006). This goes to show that there might not be a signi- ficant difference in self-care or health-seeking behavior between our segment of the population and the general population. This conclusion is also supported by findings from a study on self-medication in general among Fadare and Tamuno 219 Table 1. Distribution of respondents by level of medical education and practice of self-medication. University level Self-medication (Y) Self-medication (N) Total number of respondent 200 10 31 41 300 20 26 46 400 27 43 70 500 12 9 21 Missing value 2 3 5 Total 71 112 183 Table 2. Conditions for which self-medication was practiced. Condition No. of respondents (Percentage) Diarrhoea 17 (24.6) Sore throat 14 (20.3) Fever 12 (17.4) Cough 6 (8.7) Catarrh 4 (5.8) Toothache 4 (5.8) Body aches 2 (2.9) Others 10 (14.5) Table 3. Commonly used antibiotics by respondents. Antibiotics Frequency (Percentage) Ampicillin/cloxacillin 15 (22.1) Amoxicillin 12 (17.6) Metronidazole 12 (17.6) Co-trimoxazole 8 (11.8) Ciprofloxacin 6 (8.8) Tetracycline 6 (8.8) Amoxicillin/Clavulanic acid 3 (4.4) Penicillin G 1 (1.5) health care workers of a tertiary healthcare facility in South-West Nigeria where over 70% of them were engaged in the practice (Bamgboye et al., 2006). Another possible explanation is that the earlier quoted population- based studies were carried out in societies where the literacy levels are relatively high. It is also important to note that such levels of antibiotic self-medication even exists in some countries with more stringent access to drugs, this being made possible by use of left-overs from previous prescriptions. Clinical features and self-medication There are similarities in the conditions for which self- medication was practiced in our study with several other university and community-based studies (Zafar et al., 2008; Shankar et al., 2002; James et al., 2006). These findings emphasize the fact that self-medication is usually resorted to by individuals for perceived mild clinical conditions. The problem with this practice is that fever and other similar symptoms which could be due to viral conditions are usually wrongly treated with antibiotics creating a foundation for possible development of resistance to antibiotics in addition to financial loss and possible adverse drug reactions. Antibiotic and self-medication The choice of the antibiotics from the penicillin group (especially ampicillin/cloxacillin and amoxicillin) by majority of respondents in our study is in keeping with findings from other studies (Awad et al., 2005; Awad and Eltayeb, 2007b; Raz et al., 2005). The choice of the antibiotics from the penicillin group could be due to the following reasons: 1. They are cheap, easily accessible, have a good safety profile and somehow broad spectrum of antimicrobial activity. The relatively low patronage of antibiotics like amoxicillin/clavulanic acid could be due to its cost (about 1500 Naira /10 US Dollars) per course of treatment, this in a country where over 60% of the population survive on less than 2 US Dollars daily. 2. It is also pertinent to note that at the moment, there are no restrictions to how and where antibiotics can be sold in Nigeria hence the easy accessibility. Most of our respondents got their supply from patent medicine stores, hospital and community pharmacies reinforcing the earlier mentioned problem of lack of regulation. This is at variance with findings from other studies where left-over from old prescriptions were the main source of supply reflecting a more regulated access to antibiotics in these societies (Awad and Eltayeb, 2007b; James et al., 2006). This study revealed no strong associations between gender, level of medical education and the practice of antibiotic self-medication, a finding that is somehow different from the result of similar research in the Arabian Gulf (James et al., 2008) where the prevalence of self- medication was higher in the more senior medical students. Presently in many medical schools in Nigeria, 220 J. Public Health Epidemiol. pharmacology is taught either before the clinical training or at its initial stage and there is no significant reinforce- ment during the latter stages. Also too much attention is being placed on the basic aspect of pharmacology to the detriment of its clinical section and paying attention to this problem might be one level of intervention to address it. Conclusion This study has shown that self-medication with antibiotics is common among medical undergraduates in Northern Nigeria. There is a need for a review of educational programs especially the teaching of clinical pharmaco- logy to include modules on self- medication and rational use of medicines. At the  policy-making level, there is an urgent need to legislate and enforce laws restricting access to antibiotics in Nigeria. Most importantly, there is a need for a robust public enlightenment campaign to educate the populace of the disadvantages and possible complications of antibiotic self-medication. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors’ gratitude goes to the medical undergraduates of Bayero University, Kano, Nigeria who participated in this study. He is also grateful to the organizers of the International Training Course on the Promoting Rational Drug Use in the Community, Jaipur, India where the idea for the work was conceptualized. The author was a participant in the 2008 training course and the contribution of the faculty and fellow participants is really appreciated. REFERENCES Afolabi AO (2008). 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Vulnerability Of Children Contributing Factors Health And Social Care Essay

Vulnerability Of Children Contributing Factors Health And Social Care Essay The purpose of this chapter is to establish an understanding of the state of children in South Africa, to understand the contributing factors to their vulnerability affecting their quality of life on a multi-dimensional level, and the impact of HIV and AIDS as one of the primary contributors to childrens vulnerability. In light of the information provided within this chapter, the full extent of the basic needs of children in South Africa could provide a foundation for understanding the churchs past successes and failures in order to promote a possible urgent consideration of new approaches. the state of children There is an urgent call for the involvement of faith-based organisations (FBO, like the church), non-governmental organisations (NGO) and local governments to assist in addressing the needs of vulnerable children (Blackman, 2007; Musa, 2005; Olsen, Knight Foster, 2006; Stephenson, Gourley, Miles, 2004). This urgent call stems is in light of the poor quality of life for these children, as well as the contributing factor of the HIV and AIDS pandemic. The church and other FBOs have been recognised by various authors and organisations in their partnership and role in community-based organisations (CBO) (Hoff, 1998; Olson, Messinger, Sutherland Astone, 2005; Olson, Knight Foster, 2006; Unruh Sider, 2005). The role of churches is widely recognised as a change agent whose involvement goes beyond just the here and now. But Unruh and Sider (2005) as well as Mitchell (2001) argue that churches, who are already involved in community development as their approach to social ministries, are not as effective as they ought to be and call for the urgent consideration of their approaches, underlying perspectives and motives. This urges the church to comprehend what the specific needs of orphaned and vulnerable children are, and to consider its effectiveness and its perspectives on how these needs can be addressed. Within the recommended community development response for the church as outlined by various authors (August, 1999; Dreyer, 2004; Du Toit, 2002; Liebenberg, 1996; Myers, 1999; Myers, 2006 and Vilanculo, 1998), there is an urgent call to be needs-based that is developed through the various methods and principles such a response involves. It is therefore essential to comprehend the general state of children, as the causes of vulnerability amongst children can only be understood when their realities are explained and projected. Only within the understanding of their vulnerability and contributing factors, can childrens needs be effectively met and thereby their quality of life improved. There are various statistical estimates and projections on the realities of children, concerning the numbers of orphans and vulnerable children (OVC) in South Africa. Within these various sources, discrepancies were identified between the different sources. The data include projections with regard to HIV prevalence, orphanhood, AIDS related deaths and even total populations. These discrepancies were compared and discussed within the work of Dorrington et al. (2006:27) for the year 2005. No actual data on the true state of orphans and vulnerable children (OVC) were found or concluded as the available statistical data are all projections. Dorrington et al. (2006:17) reaffirm the use of the ASSA2003 Model, but encourage comparison with other projections. Bray (2003:44) raises further concerns regarding the methods used to calculate the estimates and projections in respect of orphans and vulnerable children (OVC), but Bray is even more concerned with what one does with these projections and calls for the careful use of such projected data. Her concerns are based on the labelling of the children as well as the intended outcomes of interventions and the nature thereof. No source could however be found that denies the estimates and projections of orphans and vulnerable children (OVC). For this reason, only statistical data from four authoritative sources, due to their global involvement, leadership and advocacy in this regard ASSA2003 Model (University of Cape Town), Statistics South Africa, UNAIDS and UNICEF will be referred to in considering the regional and national data. The sources used in this study can be accepted as authentic and trustworthy due to the sources national and international activism for children and research within this field of study. Due to the trend in the past ten years of projected figures fluctuating to an unreliable extent, these projections will be handled with great caution. It also needs to be stressed that all projections and statistics provided here are estimates only. The statistical data provided within this study are included merely for the understanding of the realities children are facing and the contribution of these circumstances to the vulnerability of children. Statistical sources from primarily the past eight years (2001 2009) will be quoted and referred to, and all other sources (older than four years and other than ASSA, Stats SA, UNAIDS and UNICEF) will be weighed against these to determine the autonomy of their arguments and statements. 2.2.1 Defining orphans and vulnerable children In order to comprehend the reality of vulnerable children within the context of this study, a clear understanding of the two terms orphans and vulnerable children is needed. Skinner et al., (2006:620) refers to the importance of considering the situation of children orphaned by AIDS, but emphasizes that by looking at orphans affected by AIDS only, does not encompass the full scale of the reality of children, since the HIV pandemic as well as surrounding poverty are creating a context in which large numbers of children are made vulnerable. It needs to be stated clearly that within the understanding of the reality of children and interventions to assist them, it is acknowledged that HIV and AIDS are a major contributor, but not the primary cause or contributor to the vulnerability of children. HIV and AIDS feature as prominent factors contributing to the vulnerability of children but it cannot be separated from other contributing factors. Orphans According to Skinner et al. (2006:620) the most accepted definition of an orphan is a child who has lost one or both parents through death But this definition could also include loss of parents through desertion or if the parents are unable or unwilling to provide care. They refer in most cases to the absent parent as being the father (Skinner et al., 2006:620). Within the literature consulted, the age of the child includes from birth and varies up to between 15 and 21, depending on the context and the level of dependency on care-givers. According to Skinner et al., (2006:620), within the orphan grouping, levels of vulnerability are discerned by an understanding of the direct environment of these children. These environmental understandings are used to understand these orphans within an implicit classification system, such as the nature of their caregivers i.e., extended families, foster parents, community caregivers, child-headed households and institutional care, the level of additional assistance required, and between maternal, paternal and double orphans (2006:620). Various authors have raised their concerns with regard to stigmatizations when defining an orphan within a group such as AIDS-orphans; or their level of vulnerability within their environmental understanding such as the term OVC (Engle, 2008:9; Save the Children, 2007:29; Skinner et al., 2006:620; Smart, 2003:4). Care must therefore be taken with how any term relating to orphans and vulnerable children (OVC) is used as they become objectified or targets for stigma and segregation which further contributes to their vulnerability. Vulnerable Children Vulnerability is not an absolute state because there are degrees of vulnerability which depend on the situation of the child. According to Skinner et al. (2006:620) there are a number of contributing factors to a childs vulnerability and each of these adds to the cumulative load that the child carries. For them, the extent of the crisis and additional problems associated with it also affect the impact on the child (2006:620). Vulnerability is a very complex concept to define and very often the understanding thereof is limited to the circumstance of the child. According to Smart, (2003:4) the concept of vulnerability is not only restricted to individuals, such as children, but is often used to refer to households as well. There does seem to be a link between poverty and vulnerability suggesting that policies and interventions to improve vulnerability among the poor in general, will also have a positive impact on disadvantaged orphans and vulnerable children (OVC) (Smart, 2003:4). The South African Department of Social Development, defines a vulnerable child as a child whose survival, care, protection or development may be compromised due to a particular condition, situation or circumstance and which prevents the fulfilment of his or her rights (2005:5). These conditions could be identified by the following criteria according to Department of Social Development (2005:13), Engle (2008:10) and Skinner et al., (2006:623): A child who is below the age of 18, and meets one or more of the following criteria, is made vulnerable by it as it influences their quality of life: Has a chronically ill parent/caregiver (regardless of whether the parent/caregiver lives in the same household as the child), or Lives in a household where in the past 12 months at least one adult died and was sick for 3 of the 12 months before he/she died, or Lives in a household where at least one adult was seriously ill for at least 3 months in the past 12 months, or Living with very old and frail caregivers, or Lives in a household that receives and cares for orphans, or Lives outside of family care (i.e., lives in an institution or on the streets), Is born of a teenage or single mother; Is abused or ill-treated by a step-parent or relatives; Is living with a parent or an adult who lacks income-generating opportunities; Has lost one or both parents; Children whose survival, well-being or development is impacted by HIV or AIDS; Any physical or mental handicap; or any other long-term difficulty that would make it difficult for the child to function independently Skinner et al., (2006:623). These indicators could include the following constantly present signs: insufficient nutrition, signs of hunger, signs of insufficient sleep, poor hygiene or cannot engage in personal care and does not have clothing or clothing is dirty or damaged (Skinner et al., 2006:623). Illness, either HIV or other major illness; and emotional or psychological problems (Skinner et al., 2006:623); According to them these indicators could include apathy or helplessness that might show in the child as being unhappy, dull, being miserable or lack of motivation, neglect of schoolwork, irregular attendance of school or not performing well at school, low school enrolment rates, high repetition rates, and/or high drop out rates (2006:623). Low immunisation and limited or no access to health services, malnutrition, and a high burden of disease; Abuse at emotional, physical or sexual level; use of drugs (e.g., glue, alcohol, cigarettes, marijuana or crack) and not receiving adequate care (Skinner et al., 2006:623) particularly love, guidance and support; intra-household neglect when compared to other children in the household (2006:623). At a higher risk than their local peers of experiencing infant, child and adolescent mortality; Family and community abuse and maltreatment (harassment and violence); Economic and sexual exploitation, due to lack of care and protection It can be concluded, that even though the HIV and AIDS pandemic is evident as a major contributor and the presence of it will be visible in almost every aspect of being vulnerable; these as well as other factors contributing to vulnerability, must be acknowledged and considered within the wider context of other children. HIV and AIDS is not the only contributor to the problem of orphanhood and vulnerability. Other factors like poverty, wars, abuse, non-HIV related illnesses and natural and unnatural deaths, contribute significantly to the problem of orphanhood and vulnerability amongst children (Simbayi, Kleintjies, Ngomane, Tabane, Mfecane Davids, 2006:20). It is thus important that HIV and orphan interventions attend to the needs of all children, rather than focussing solely on those children affected by HIV/AIDS. 2.2 The SOCIAL STATe OF CHILDREN in SOUTH AFRICA South Africa is being considered as a developing country and an inspiration for the African Renaissance and humanitarian development. With South Africa supposable having the worlds best Constitution and Bill of Rights (Dinokeng, 2009:9), one would expect a reflection thereof in the reality of the lives of the children of South Africa. The National picture the general state of South Africas children The following data are year specific, but reflects the vulnerability of children in South Africa which is the primary focus of the inclusion of this data in this study. In 2006, there were 18.2 million children in South Africa and they constituted 38% of the countrys population, of which 38% were between 6 and 12 years, 34% being younger than 6 years and 28% were teenagers (13 17 years old) (Proudlock, Dutschke, Jamieson, Monson Smith, 2008:64). The livelihood-realities of South African children From all the children in South Africa, in 2006 an estimated 12.3 million or 68% of them lived in households with an income of less than R1 200 per month (Proudlock et al., 2008:63). A further 2.8 million or 16% of all children were living in households across South Africa where children were reported as hungry (sometimes, often or always) because there was not enough food (Proudlock et al., 2008:63; Stats SA, 2006:41). An estimated 10 million or 54% of South Africas children lived in rural areas according to research done in 2004. The Eastern Cape, KwaZulu-Natal and Limpopo provinces were home to about 74% of all rural children in South Africa of which Limpopo was proportionally the most rural province, where only 12% of children lived in urban areas. In the Eastern Cape and KwaZulu-Natal provinces, there is more of an equal split between children living in urban and rural areas. In Gauteng there were 96% and in the Western Cape 87% of the children urban-based. It is a general practice that adults living in rural areas, often move to urban areas in search of work, while their children remain in the rural areas and are cared for by the extended family. There was an indication that babies younger than one year were more likely to be living in urban areas than older children, which suggests that babies born in urban areas initially remain with their mothers (Proudlock et al., 2008:87). The number of children living in informal housing (backyard dwellings or shacks in informal settlements) increased from 2.3 million in 2002, to 2.6 million in 2006 and also accounted for 12% of all South African children (Proudlock et al., 2008:86). Children living in formal areas are more likely than those living in informal or traditional dwellings to have basic services on site. They are also more likely to be closer to facilities like schools, libraries, clinics and hospitals than those living in informal settlements or rural areas. Proudlock et al. (2008:90) reflects on children living in informal settlements as being more exposed to hazards such as shack fires and paraffin poisoning. For them, childrens rights to adequate housing means that they should not have to live in informal dwellings (2008:86). Overcrowding is related to a shortage of housing and also to the size of houses being built. In 2006, 5.2 million or 28% of the total child population lived in overcrowded households (Proudlock et al., 2008:90; Stats SA, 2006:41). For Proudlock et al. (2008:90), Overcrowding is a problem because it can undermine childrens needs and rights, and refer to the right to privacy, and health as communicable diseases spread more easily in overcrowded conditions. For them, children in crowded households may struggle to negotiate space for their own activities. These children may also have less access to basic services such as water and electricity (Proudlock et al., 2008:90). Good sanitation is vital for healthy childhood as there are a number of negative consequences for children who are unable to access proper toilets. It is very difficult to maintain good hygiene without water and toilets children are exposed to worms, bacterial infection which compromises nutrition. A lack of adequate sanitation also undermines human dignity (Proudlock et al., 2008:91). In 2006, only 9.9 million, or 55% of South Africas children had access to adequate toilet facilities and 11 million or 61% of South Africas children had access to drinking water on site (Proudlock et al., 2008:91). In 2006, 10.6 million or 96% of all children of school-going age (7 17 years) were attending some form of school or educational facility. These figures however, are not an indication of the regularity of childrens school attendance; the quality of teaching and learning in schools, or about repetition and throughput rates (Proudlock et al., 2008:74; Stats SA, 2006:9). A reason for concern is the number of children who did not attend an educational facility, as according to Proudlock et al., (2008:74) and Stats SA, (2006:9), in 2006 there were about 447,000 children of school-going age that were not attending an educational facility, of which 337,000 were children aged 13 17. Every year there are 20 000 babies stillborn and a further 22 000 babies die before they are a month old (28 days), which accounted for 30% of all child deaths in 2006 (UNICEF, 2008:6). The mortality data for 2006 showed that the highest number of deaths in the whole population occurred in the 0 4 years age group of which the under five year mortality rate (U5MR) increased from 40 deaths per 1,000 live births in 2001 to 72 per 1,000 live births in 2005. The infant mortality rate (IMR) increased from 29 deaths per 1,000 live births in 2001 to 43 per 1,000 live births in 2005 (Proudlock et al., 2008:78;). It is estimated that one in every 17 children dies before the age of 5 (UNICEF, 2008:6). According to Proudlock et al., (2008:80) the leading causes of death in children under five may be divided into four categories: Complications during and shortly after birth According to them (2008:80), the leading causes of death among children younger than 15 years (for 2000 to 2005) are related to perinatal disorders (disorders that occur in the period of late pregnancy to seven days after birth), which means that newborn children and infants under one year are particularly susceptible to diseases. Respiratory and cardiovascular disorders remain the primary cause of death in the perinatal period and, since 2002, it is the highest specific category of death among children under 15 years. By the end of 2003, the perinatal mortality rate was 35.8 per 1,000 for all deliveries, and 26.4 per 1,000 for all infants weighing more than 1,000 grams (Proudlock et al., 2008:80). HIV-related illnesses HIV/AIDS remains the biggest threat to child survival as the HIV- and AIDS-pandemic continues to devastate the well-being and survival of children (Proudlock et al., 2008:80). Diseases directly related to poverty (for example intestinal infectious diseases and malnutrition) Gastrointestinal and respiratory diseases have shown a decline in incidence since 1997, and malnutrition as a cause of death, has halved between 2000 and 2005 (Proudlock et al., 2008:80). Trauma Unnatural causes of death that account for trauma are classified under unspecified unnatural causes, which makes up 7% of child deaths in 2005 (Proudlock et al., 2008:80). It was estimated for 2007, that for every 100,000 people, 41 were raped (of which 40% were children). This statistic is accepted as under-estimated by UNICEF and states that under-reporting of crime is common, especially when it involves people from the same family or community (2008:7). In the majority of crimes that happen within social or domestic settings, the perpetrators and the victims know each other they are family or friends (UNICEF, 2008:7). HIV and AIDS regional data South- Africa According to Smart (2003:7) the HIV- and AIDS-pandemic can be illustrated as a succession of three waves. The first wave is HIV infections, and it is followed some years later by the second wave of AIDS illness and death. This in turn, is followed by the third wave of children being orphaned by HIV and AIDS, with its impact at multiple levels (2003:7). But according to UNICEF (2004a:4) HIV and AIDS start to affect a child early in a parents illness, as children and young people in an HIV and AIDS-affected household begin to suffer long before a parent or caregiver dies, due to the effects resulting in household income that plummets, interrupted schooling and even total fall-out, either to care for a sick parent or to earn money. The impact thereof continues through the course of the illness, as well as throughout the childs development well after the parents death. Various survival strategies are pursued, such as eating less and selling assets, which are contributing to and intensifying the vulnerability of these households. For UNICEF, Children who are deprived of the guidance and protection of their primary caregivers are more vulnerable to health risks, violence, exploitation, and discrimination (2004a:4). According to UNICEF (2004a:3) children affected by HIV and AIDS are not only affected by orphanhood, but they are also made vulnerable when they have an ill parent, are living in poor households that have taken in orphans, are discriminated against because of a family members HIV status, or who have HIV themselves. For then, HIV and AIDS has joined a host of other factors and includes extreme poverty, conflict, and exploitation, which impose additional burdens on societys youngest and most vulnerable members (2004a:3). It is believed that due to the discrepancies in data older than 2005, there was a global under-estimation of the impact of HIV and AIDS pandemic in South Africa, to such an extent that South Africa was not considered to be a country facing the biggest impact of this pandemic, as compared to neighbouring countries like Botswana, Lesotho, Swaziland and Zimbabwe. Only in recent literature (from ASSA, UNAIDS, UNICEF and World Bank) dated from 2005, it was realized that South Africa will have the biggest impact of HIV and AIDS thus having the biggest burden of orphans and vulnerable children (OVC) due to this pandemic. In 2007, the total South African population was 47.8 million people, of which 18.2 million where children under the age of 17 years (Proudlock et al., 2008:82; UNICEF, 2008:5). In the same year, it was estimated that 5.7 million South Africans were living with HIV, making South Africa the largest pandemic in the world (UNICEF, 2008:7 something not previously considered (UNAIDS/WHO, 2007:16; UNICEF, 2008:7). Women, especially those in their child bearing years, bear the biggest proportion of the HIV infection and a third of pregnant women are estimated to be HIV-positive (UNICEF, 2008:2). The HIV data from antenatal clinics in South Africa suggest that the countrys pandemic might be stabilizing, but there is no evidence yet of major changes in HIV-related behaviour (UNAIDS/WHO, 2007:12). By 2006, 294,000 children under the age of 15 years of age were living with HIV in South Africa (ASSA, 2005:n.p.; Proudlock et al., 2008:82) and the majority of them have been infected through mother-to-child transmission and therefore child prevalence among infants is largely influenced by the HIV prevalence of pregnant women and the interventions to prevent mother-to-child transmission (ASSA, 2005:n.p.; Proudlock et al., 2008:84). The highest prevalence amongst these children was in KwaZulu-Natal with 3.2%; Mpumalanga and the Free State with 2.6%; and Gauteng with 2.5 % (ASSA, 2005:n.p; Proudlock et al., 2008:84). The estimates from the ASSA2003 model further suggested that an overall prevalence of 1.2% in 2000 has doubled to 2.1% in 2006 for children under the age of 18 years (ASSA, 2005:n.p.; Proudlock et al., 2008:63). According to UNICEF (2008:24), life expectancy has plummeted by 15 years, from age 65 in 1996 to age 50 in 2005 and 1,000 people die every day as a result of AIDS-related illnesses.. In 2006, approximately 69% of children and adults with advanced HIV infection were receiving antiretroviral treatment (ART) (UNICEF, 2008:24) while still between 270 000 and 420 000 people died of AIDS related illnesses in 2006 (UNAIDS/WHO, 2008:7). KwaZulu-Natal had the highest number of deaths (15,209) due to AIDS related illnesses, as well as the second highest number (6,378) of children on ART in that year. Gauteng had the second highest number of child deaths due to AIDS related illnesses, but in the same year it had the highest number of children on ART (6,992) (ASSA, 2005:n.p.; Proudlock et al., 2008:85). According to Proudlock et al., (2008:84), the HIV-pandemic has progressed at a rapid pace over the last decade, and the necessary health services to address the needs of HIV infected children, have not been put in place. This has caused children to not be able to access the life-saving and urgently needed antiretroviral treatment (ART). Children in the path of HIV and AIDS orphans With a large number of factors already mentioned that are contributing to the vulnerability of children, the impact of HIV and AIDS can be expected to be another big contributing factor. In South Africa the number of orphans has been increasing slowly, and as a result has attracted relatively little public attention. In years to come however, the number of orphans is likely to rise rapidly as AIDS mortality increases (Johnson Dorrington, 2001:1). In 2001 they (2001:5) considered South Africas AIDS pandemic as still in its early stages, relative to other African countries, as South Africa has yet to experience the levels of orphanhood observed elsewhere in Africa. This is because there are more people infected with HIV in South Africa than in any other African Country, and it is therefore quite possible that the country will ultimately have more orphans due to AIDS related causes, than any other country on the African continent (Johnson Dorrington, 2001:5). According to UNICEF (2008:24), of all the countries affected by HIV and AIDS, South Africa has the most crushing burden, as a result of having the worlds highest number of HIV infected people. According to Proudlock et. al (2008:66), in 2006, there were 3.7 million total orphans this is equal to 21% of all children in South Africa with 619 000, or 3% of all orphans documented to be maternal orphans, 668 000, or 4 % of all orphans documented to be double orphans and 2.4 million orphans, or 14% of all orphans documented to be paternal orphans. According to them, the number of paternal orphans is this high because of the higher mortality rates of men in South Africa, as well as the frequent absence of fathers in childrens lives (Proudlock et al., 2008:66). Per province, the estimates for 2006 were as follows: KwaZulu-Natal with 978 000 orphans. Eastern Cape 816 000 orphans Limpopo 481 000 orphans Gauteng 392 000 orphans Mpumalanga 286 000 orphans Free State 284 000 orphans North West 281 000 orphans Western Cape 198 000 orphans Northern Cape 52 000 orphans (Proudlock et al., 2008:66) There has been an increase in the number of orphans in the past five years, and according to Proudlock et. al (2008:66) there were approximately 750,000 more children living as orphans in 2006 than in 2002 and consider this increase in light of the HIV- and AIDS-pandemic (2008:66). Further to this, they state that there where about 122,000 children living in an estimated 60,000 child-headed households across South Africa (2008:68). Of these, 89% were located in the following three provinces: Limpopo, KwaZulu-Natal, and the Eastern Cape (Proudlock et al., 2008:68). Yearly an average of 1.1 million babies are born, of which 300,000 were born to HIV-positive mothers and an estimated 78,000 of these babies run the risk of getting infected if nothing is done to prevent mother-to-child transmission of HIV. Half of these children die before they reach two years of age (UNICEF, 2008:13). Orphan projections As mentioned, the HIV- and AIDS-pandemic needs to be understood in terms of a series of waves Smart (2003:7). In South Africa, the first of these waves represented new HIV infections which according to Johnson and Dorrington (2001:5) peaked in 1998 at about 930 000 infections per year. This was followed by the second wave of the total number of infections, which was estimated to peak in 2006 at 7.7 million infections (2001:5). The third wave being AIDS deaths, is expected to peak in 2010 with about 800 000 (2001:5 deaths per year, which will lead to the fourth wave being AIDS related orphans. Johnson and Dorrington (2001:4) estimates this wave to peak at 3.7 million maternal orphans (children under the age of 18 years) (2001:13) and 4.71 million paternal orphans (children under the age of 18 years) in 2015, (2001:14) while the total number of children having lost one or both parents is expected to reach its highest level in 2014, at 5.67 million (2001:14). Johnson and Dorrington estimates that in 2015, these orphans (children under the age of 18 years and having lost one or both parents) would be 33% of the total child population, of which 18% would have lost a mother (maternal orphan) and 28% would have lost their father (paternal orphan) and 11% would have lost both their parents (double orphans). They further estimate to remain at these high levels for an expected 15 20 years, due to the general consideration that if a child lost one parent due to AIDS related illnesses, it is most likely for the other parent to also die of AIDS related illnesses, to the extent that by 2020 a total of 40% of all orphans would be considered double orphans (Johnson Dorrington, 2001:14). Giese and Meintjies (2004:2), Johnson and Dorrington (2001:22) call for these projections to be understood as merely predictions in the absence of any major treatment intervention or behaviour changes. Johnson and Dorrington (2001:ii) also states that within these projected orphan estimates, one needs to consider that firstly, relatively few orphaned children are likely to be HIV positive, as most HIV positive orphans do not survive for long enough to constitute a significant proportion of the orphan population. Secondly, the rate of orphanhood is likely to be the highest in the black African population group amongst poor socio-economic groups (2001:ii). Con

Impact of the Internet on Communication With Children

Impact of the Internet on Communication With Children The Effect of Internet on Children’s Communication With the assist of technology development, the Internet has gained wide recognition and become an integrated part of our lives in a short time. The Internet revolution has reformed society since it brings us a digital data network, unprecedented access to information and communication. These advantages of Internet usage, therefore, accelerate Internet users worldwide growth to increase exponentially. In 2013, The World Bank Organization announced that about 44 per 100 Vietnamese are now accessing the Internet. The organization also reveals that 90 percent populations of the United Kingdom are Internet users. During their childhood and adolescents, developing language and communication skills to a child is significant (Ontario Ministry of Children and Youth Service, n.d.). In addition, it primarily interacts with the surrounding environment rather than social background (Roulstone, Law, Rush, Clegg, Peters, 2010). Meanwhile, children nowadays use Internet more. They are surrounded by online environment and have a tendency to explore what on the web. In consequence, it is anticipated to have a series of effects on children development. This report is to give our findings on the impact of the cyberspace which are associated with childrens daily communication and gives suggestions for the negative cases. Positive Effect Educational Purpose Self-efficacy and self-regulated learning. To study effectively, a child needs to develop his/her self-efficacy. Self-efficacy and self-regulated, as Chiou and Wan (2007) defined, are essential to one’s confidence level in achieving his goal. Unlike adults, children have vivid imaginations, genuine creativity, and unstoppable curiosity (Avery, 2004). Therefore, they obtain self-efficacy effortlessly if they are welcome to visualize. Besides teacher guidance at school, they have encouragement from the web to engage, and further to strengthen their inventive imagination. For example, if they cannot do something, they can watch it on Youtube which shows them step-by-step (Tuukkanen Wilska, 2015). Result from Tuukkanen and Wilska (2015) reveals that children are tending to go online for their school projects or assignment more than self-entertaining. Again, Internet demonstrates distinct advantages in connecting learners with materials and teachers (Ritter, 2000). The web provide s millions of websites which offer us the opportunity to approach billions homework help, textbook solution, and other e-resources in a few clicks. Otherwise, getting support from specialists is a reasonable choice. Since Internet provides us with communication services efficiently and without any cost, as a result, it minimizes distances and fosters connection between teachers and students. Gather information quickly. Doan and Bloomfield conducted research on students essay grades under effects of web browsing (2014) by gathering three groups to take the same writing test, but in different conditions. One group was not permitted to use the Internet, the other two could, however, their time limit to do the test was reduced. Despite that, students who were allowed to go online scored better, which proves two things: First, Internet provides us a wide background knowledge in short time. Secondly, it makes a positive outcome on our school performance. Less antisocial behavior. As the evidence suggest, using Internet for educational purpose could bring us academic performance success. The same as a domino effect, a child with school success would be less depressive and higher self-esteem. A survey by Kim (2011) indicates with these three sufficient requirements: good academic achievement, less depression, and high-esteem, children would be less antisocial behavior. Written communication. Web 3.0 enables and supports innovative channels for online education, in which written communication is a fundamental form of transferring information. Furthermore, the way using mechanics such as spelling, punctuation, and capitalization constructed in a message can remarkably influence the interpretation/misinterpretation to one’s tone in his/her academic writing (Betts, 2009). Research indicates that people express feelings with combined use of word choice, sentence structure and even font (Stone, n.d., as cited in Betts, 2009). For this reason, psychologists study online writing style of suicidal people. Apparently, it can be applied for suicide risk assessment in what unique verbal characteristics that imply suicidal risk, and provoke an alarm for special attention (Barak Miron, 2005). A child, like any living creature, needs to express anger, sorrow, and happiness. Also, whether direct or indirect, a child’s psychological need is diverse a nd complex. In other words, feeding and clothing a child will not matter if there is no caregiving or support (Williams, Ciarrochi, Heaven, 2012). Thus, suicide risk assessment would favor parenthood concerns to note their childs behavior and activities as a mean to have the right moves before any sorrowful tragic might happen. References Avery, M. E. (2004). What is good for children is good for mankind: The role of imagination in discovery. Science, 306(5705), 2212-3. Barak, A., Miron, O. (2005). Writing characteristics of suicidal people on the internet: A psychological investigation of emerging social environments. Suicide Life Threatening Behavior, 35(5), 507-24. Betts, K. (2009). Lost in Translation: Importance of Effective Communication in Online Education. Retrieved June 5, 2015, from http://www.westga.edu/~distance/ojdla/summer122/betts122.html Chiou, W., Wan, C. (2007). The dynamic change of self-efficacy in information searching on the internet: Influence of valence of experience and prior self-efficacy.The Journal of Psychology,141(6), 589-603. Doan, K., Bloomfield, A. (2014). The effects of browse time on the internet on students essay scores. Kim, S. (2011).The effects of internet use on academic achievement and behavioral adjustment among south Korean adolescents: Mediating and moderating roles of parental factors. Ontario Ministry of Children and Youth Service (n.d.). Your preschool childs speech and language development. Retrieved June 5, 2015, from http://www.children.gov.on.ca/htdocs/English/topics/earlychildhood/speechlanguage/brochure_preschool.aspx Ritter, M. E., Lemke, K. A. (2000). Addressing the seven principles for good practice in undergraduate education with internet-enhanced education.Journal of Geography in Higher Education,24(1), 100-108. Roulstone, S., Law, J., Rush, R., Clegg, J., Peters, T. (2010, May 11). Investigating the role of language in children’s early educational outcomes. Retrieved June 5, 2015, from https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/181549/DFE-RR134.pdf Terhi Tuukkanen,Terhi-Anna Wilska, (2015) Online environments in children’s everyday lives: children’s, parents’ and teachers’ points of view,Young Consumers, Vol. 16 Iss: 1, pp.3 – 16. Retrieved from http://www.emeraldinsight.com/doi/abs/10.1108/YC-03-2014-00430 The World Bank (n.d.). Internet users (per 100 people). Retrieved May 27, 2015, from http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/IT.NET.USER.P2?cid=GPD_44 Williams, K. E., Ciarrochi, J., Heaven, P. C., L. (2012). Inflexible parents, inflexible kids: A 6-year longitudinal study of parenting style and the development of psychological flexibility in adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 41(8), 1053-66.

Comparative Essay of Heart of Darkness and Apocalypse Now

Comparative Essay of Heart of Darkness and Apocalypse Now The ties between Joseph Conrad's book, â€Å"Heart of Darkness† and Francis Coppola's movie, â€Å"Apocalypse Now† are unmistakable. Apocalypse Now's correctness in following the story line of the Heart of Darkness is amazing although the settings of each story are from completely different location and time periods. From the jungle of the Congo in Africa to the Nung river in Vietnam, Joseph Conrad's ideals are not lost. In both the book and the movie, the ideas of good and evil, whiteness, darkness, and racism are clear. Also, characterization in both the novel and the movie are very similar. Both The Heart of Darkness and Apocalypse Now examine the good and evil in human beings. In â€Å"The Heart of Darkness†, Marlow speaks of Fresleven who was killed in a fight with some natives. The argument between Fresleven and the natives was over some chickens, and Fresleven felt he had been ripped off in the deal. Marlow describes Fresleven as "†¦the gentlest, quietest creature that ever walked on two legs."(p. 13 Conrad) However, later in the same paragraph Marlow says,"†¦he probably felt the need at last of asserting his self-respect in some way. Therefore he whacked the old nigger mercilessly."(p. 13 Conrad) Soldiers in combat are forced to bring the evil within themselves out every time they go into battle. The scene in Apocalypse Now where Captain Willard first meets Lt. Colonel Kilgore, show’s the power at which combat has in bringing out the dark side in humans. The attitude the soldiers have towards their enemy in the scene shows how evil humans can be. Kilgore demonstrates his dark side when he tosses the "death cards" on to the bodies of the dead Viet... ...ly in order to agree with the times, but deep in the heart of it its the same. Kurtz in both cases is the heart of the evil, in the novel he spreads his evil in the ways he runs the ivory trade and enslaves the natives. In the movies Kurtz shows his evil in the way he begins his own colony and becomes a devil god, using human examples of death to govern his "tribe". Another similarity is the way Coppola has pictured military machinery that has been broken down. This is a way of symbolizing the breakdown of the white man. The American strength is in it's machinery according to the movie, and the book uses a civilized way of life as the strength of the white man, in both cases they were conquered. Both the novel and the movie Apocalypse Now show clearly that evil does not control, and cruelty of other people is just not the way to see something through, a dark dream.

Peter Tosh A man of the past, living in the present, walking in the future :: essays papers

Peter Tosh A man of the past, living in the present, walking in the future Peter Tosh. With the name comes a certain stigma and uneasiness in Reggae circles. Peter Tosh was a crusader and warrior in a musical forum more known for it’s mellow and passive resistance. As former college and producer Lee Jaffe simply put it "A lot of people were afraid of Peter, they did not know how to deal with him."(Stepping Razor, Red X: the Peter Tosh story, Bush Doctor Films). He traveled the globe for roughly thirty years preaching his message of equality and justice for every man. He was preaching against powerful forces and societal brainwashing and misinformation. The so called downpressorman or Babylon. He fought against these forces, with bravado, undaunting passion, and an arrogant open style that many people did not know how to deal with. He had a strong conviction of what he viewed as right and wrong. When he saw something as unjustified watch out. He attacked his viewed oppressors with the veracity of an attack dog. As reggae artist of international supers tar status, this was a dangerous thing, because he reached the masses. The way that Tosh fights these oppressors, is with Word, Sound, and Power not physical violence, as one Rasta elder asserts this the Traditional Rastafarian way, "Word, Sound, and Power, is a symbol of man. Seen? That is what we use amongst Babylon. We don’t use a stick, nor a stone, nor a gun" (Stepping Razor, Red X: the Peter Tosh story, Bush Doctor Films). He sings songs witch he believes to be divine. The message of Jah channeled through him. He gains inspiration from the sacrament, the sweet gift of Jah, Herb. Tosh does not try and make the messages sweet and trite, about love affairs and such. He makes sure each and every song is meaningful and to the point. Then like a musical architect as he describes it, he decorates the message with the musical intricacies of his trade. The blunt message is delivered in angelic harmony, surrounded by a heavy hitting bass, the ever-present drums, and the exultant trademark lead guitar that influenced a generation of reggae guitarists to come. The intent was to draw a listener in with the music, so that he or she then had to pay attention to the words. Tosh’s music was a call to arms against Babylon and a vehicle to unit the downtrodden of the world.

Personnel Five-Year Development Plan: How to Be a Qualified Accountant

Personnel Five-Year Development Plan: How to be a qualified accountant Xingyi Wu 1591926 Personnel Administration V3 Dr. Bahareh Assadi March 07 , 2013 Personnel Five-Year Development Plan: How to be a qualified accountant In the modern society, the developing speed of economy is very fast, which means the world is becoming a business world. As a result of this trend, the role of financial management is getting more and more important.That is why more and more people and companies require accountants with good accounting skills, especially in Canada, in which the tax is so complicated that almost all the peolple need an accountant to take responsbility for their tax. Career goals and objectives There are many successful accountants in the world. For example: Daryl Ritchie, CEO of Meyers Norris Penny LLP, got his start in 1978 as an articling student at the firm,and because of Ritchie’s hard work in 20 years, Ritchie was promoted to CEO and has since led the firm in leadership and growth.Another good instance is Bill Thomas, who is the CEO and Senior Partner of KPMG Canada, started his career with a bachelor of Science from the University of British Columbia in 1989. Thomas began at KPMG in 1990 in Audit practice. Quickly recognized, Thomas soon after moved up to become Audit Leader. Appointed to CEO in 2009, Thomas is now head of the 4,500 employee company(Kristin, 2011). These people are the final goals and objectives to most of the accountants, so do I. My terminal goals and objectives are to be a qualified accountant.I will work in an accounting firm at the beginning time, and after having lots of experience and many clients, I will set up my own accounting firm, that is the ultimate goal and objective in my career. The possible opportunities for career growth In the business world, the importance of accounting has been promoted in recent years. To companies, accountants are essential. They are trained in accounting and are taught to measure, establis h and maintain financial records of great accuracy for companies or individuals, records that have great value for managers, tax authorities and investors.In any business the accountant plays an important role and has many duties. Accountants are responsible for evaluating records provided by the book keepers in order to establish whether the business is progressing or not, and where it lacks improvement. Accountants record financial transactions that take place within the company and prepare financial statements. The most important role of accountants is predicting the cost effectiveness of company strategies and help the overall development of any business through knowledge and technical skill.They are key to the success of any organization, working hand in hand with those who run it(Nacpaf, 2012). To individuals, as I mentioned before, in Canada, almost everyone needs an accountant to help themselves to clarify the items and details of the financial statement, otherwise, they may pay a high price for their financial behaviour because of the strict and complicated tax law in Canada. Considering these two reasons, to set up my own accounting firm has a good prospect. Besides, this business action must have a large number of clients and a huge amount of potential clients, due to this, this action can ensure a very high profit.Therefore, it is a good choice for people who want to be successful. The inventory of current skills, abilities, training, and education It is not very easy to be a qualified accountant. First of all, this person should be good at math and calculating, because being an accountant, this person has to deal with a large amount of numbers. Secondly, this person should be smart enough so that he can try his best to reduce the clients' tax and not break the tax law at the same time.Finally, this person should have abundant knowledge in accounting area. However, there is no company will waste their time on testing whether this person is qualifie d or not, considering of this, this person had better has passed CGA exam. A CGA is an accounting professional with expertise in finance, taxation, business strategy, auditing, management, and business leadership. CGAs must meet the education, experience and examination requirements established, and regularly enhanced, by CGA-Canada(Wikipedia, 2013).After passing all the courses which CGA requires, this person will be qualified enough to do an accounting job. Job satisfaction attributes What attribute people to have an accounting job? For the first reason, getting an accounting job can offer people a stable salary. Some people are not interested in the jobs which are very flexible, they prefer to do things followed some laws or rules, they do not need to think about how they should do this thing, they should only care about what they should do.For the second reason, to have an accounting job is really more than getting a job. People use accounting in their daily lives when they stud y financial statements to make investment decisions, assess interest rates to pay off their house mortgages, and calculate rates for car payment. The last reason is that this job is comparably easy. Firstly, people do not have to work day and night. Secondly, people can even work at home instead of going to their work place. Thirdly, this job is very safe, people won't risk their lives when doing this work.Three action steps to reach the stated career goals and objectives For the first 2 years, the most important thing is collecting the accounting knowledge, starting learning CGA courses and passing the CGA exam. This is also the fundamental period during one's accounting career. A good beginning is half the success. For the following 2 years, after graduating from university, I will enter a small accounting firm. Because of lacking in the accounting experience, probably the big accounting firms will not hire people who just graduate from university.However, as a CGA, to find a job in a small company is not very hard. I will spend these 2 years to accumulate work experience, save money and try to know lots of clients to lay the foundation for setting up my own accounting firm. For the fifth year, after having enough funds and clients, I will set up my own company. This is the ultimate goal and objective in my career. I believe this step will be a milestone in my career life. Potential barriers To be a qualified accountant is a very long and hard period for an international student.For one thing, as I come from China, there are sigificant differences between Canadian and Asian universities, especially when it comes to accounting education. These differences, in conjunction with differences in cognitive and linguistic patterns, constitute formidable barriers that initially prevent successful participation in the Canadian accounting courses(Mary, Matthew& Panadda, 1999). For another, even if Asian students have studied English for a long time or have passed some basic English tests, the language is still the biggest problem during their study time.What is more challenging for Asian students is that they have adapted to their own country's tax law. However, in Canada, they have to learn a totally new tax law in their second language, which is also a intractable trouble for them. Conclusion Being an accountant has many advantages. For instance, people can get a stable salary from this job, they don't have to day and night. Besides, accounting offres people an absolutely good potencial opportunity in business. Therefore, if they can overcome the barriers mentioned before, it's really a good choice to start an accounting firm. ReferencesKristin, Craik. (2011). Canada's Best Accountants. Retrieved from http://www. businessreviewcanada. ca/money_matters/canadas-best-accountants Nacpaf. (2012). Accountants in the company. Retrieved from http://www. nacpaf. com/role-of-accountatns-in-a-company. html Wikipedia. (2013). Certified General Accountant. Retrieved from http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Certified_General_Accountant Mary, Beaven. , Matthew, Calderisi. , & Panadda Tantral. (1999). Barriers to Learning Experienced by Asian Students in American Accounting Classes. Retrieved from http://www. fdu. edu/newspubs/barriers. html